The Folsom culture followed, named after the Folsom site in New Mexico. At that site archaeologists found weapons and stone cutting tools along with bison bones that helped identify the time period of this culture. It was during the Folsom time span that the Indians began to use a spear-throwing device called atlatl. This tool was made from a two-to-four foot stick. Hide loops were added for a better grip, and a weight was added for balance. A groove in the stick held the spear shaft. With this weapon the hunters had increased leverage for flying a spear farther and faster. It provided some compensation for the size and strength difference between the hunter and hunted.

Following the Folsom Times, from about 6500 to 6000 B.C, the final period of the Paleo-Indian hunters was identified as the Cody. The Cody hunters, who roamed New Mexico and Southern Colorado are associated with a number of implements such as triangular knives, choppers, and scrapers. It is suggested that the existence of a greater variety of tools than the other two cultures indicates advancements to meet special needs. Apparently these hunters also became very proficient in dispatching their quarries by driving them over a cliff.

The Paleo-Indian period evolved into the Archaic Indian period.* There was a transitional time that began about 8000B.C. and lasted 3000 years. The climate warmed, and the great glaciers retreated. The changing climate probably contributed to the extinction of the big game animals along with the Indians becoming more skilled hunters. The melting ice created lakes, rivers and swamps. The Ice Age became the Watershed Age. North America gradually evolved to its present form by approximately 5000 B.C

The new Archaic Indians exploited a wide variety of land resources and utilized areas that had been unimportant to the Paleo-Indian. Their diet was more varied than in the past leading to the development of a number of implements such as the stone chopping block, along with scraping and cutting tools―all aids to food preparation. They also learned to weave plant materials into clothing and baskets.

The first complex of Archaic Indian traits that transitioned from the Paleo-Indians of the Cody culture is found in the Southwest. It is labeled Cochise because of its concentration in southeastern Arizona. The Cochise were apparently so successful in adjusting to the varied and hospitable environment that over the centuries the population grew. Growth is substantiated by hundreds of sites littered with debris.

 

*Please remember all dates are general. Exact dates cannot apply because the knowledge about early Indians keeps growing.

 

These archaeological sites, dating from around 3000 B.C. to 100 A.D., extended over Northern Mexico through what is now Arizona, New Mexico, Southern Colorado, and Utah. The widely-spread groups of hunter-gatherers finally underwent a life-style change to a more sedentary existence. The main reason for the change from the nomadic life was the introduction and later reliance on farming. A plant that would later become a food staple was maize or corn. Corn’s importance was so great that this dietary supplement gradually brought about a move to permanent settlements.

There is little doubt that the changes were made possible by the introduction of agriculture and technologies brought by itinerants from Mesoamerica. The term Mesoamerica, or Middle America, refers to the highly developed civilizations of the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec, who had well-organized societies and cities. The southwest prehistory shows its dependency upon the advanced cultures from Mesoamerica in many ways. This new pattern of agriculture―farming―perhaps was brought about by the itinerant influences of people from Mexico, as well as the coast of California, and the plains. This soil-based revolution occurred shortly after 3000 B.C. The result was the emergence of a distinctive Southwest lifestyle.  

As the emerging lifestyle of the Archaic Indians developed, many improvements and adaptations of methods, tools, and other implements were made.  They began to weave seeds and grasses into clothing and baskets. They came up with new methods of food preparation. Baskets and hide containers were used to store food. Boats were constructed for transportation and animals were domesticated. During this period the Archaic Indians designed an assortment of ornaments and religious objects. Their religious rituals became more elaborate and more ceremonial than their predecessors,

The increased dependence upon agriculture called for more permanent residences. With the growth of population came more social controls. More leisure time, unrelated to food production, promoted the adoption of new technologies. With the addition of more time for creativity in daily living, people were able to use that time for aesthetic expression in forms such as basketry and pottery-making. In farming there was an apparent need and appreciation for team work and cooperation. Validation of all this data has come from scholars who have been involved in well over 150 years of research, in what is regarded as the Southwest tradition. A multitude of ruins have been examined and excavated. The remains of human residue have been studied intently, classified, measured, and compared.

Tribal member relatives have been interviewed regarding the attributes of their ancestors. From these efforts has come the realization that cultures, which arose in the Southwest, were varied even through they shared common roots.

Thus were the beginning steps of the cultural complexity that would underlie later developments in the Southwest.  The fundamental reorientation was made possible from the slow diffusion of methods and ideas from Mesoamerica. Both the Mogollon and the Anasazi evolved from the Archaic base while the Hohokam origin remains controversial.  It is the belief that the original stock of the Hohokam came from the Mexican interior.

While there were other cultures in the Southwest, the focus of this paper is on the Mogallon culture, the Hohokam culture, and the Anasazi culture. From about 100 B.C. to A.D. 1350, these cultures thrived in the Southwest.

The map that follows shows the approximate boundaries of the three cultures. Note the number of rivers that flowed through the region.

 

 

MOGOLLON

First is the culture known as the Mogallon (mo-goi-yone) that flourished about 300 B.C. to 1300 A.D. in the central highlands. It is a culture that is rather hard to define; many generations of archaeologists have disputed the attributes of Mogollon achievements with those of the Anasazi. You can define the southwest history emphasizing cultural differences, yet that tends to give the impression each group evolved individually and in isolation. Today scholars explain the records by attributing deviations in the cultures to the adjustment to environmental changes and the exchanges among the people. With the Mogollon and the Anasazi both evolving from the Archaic hunter-gathers into cultures with a focus on agriculture and village life, there was a culture fusion. Yet the fusion that archaeologists dispute is which parts were existing culture and which were new achievements from outside influences.

From about A.D. 650 to 850 the Mogollon remained content with the status quo. With an increase in numbers they moved from the heights to build in the valleys near their expanding fields. Population and villages continued to grow in ratio to their farming abilities.

Over the centuries many Archaic peoples adopted certain traits, the utmost being farming, and communal living. But the Mogollon took their achievements to a higher level. Around A.D. 250 the Mogollon hunter-gathers of southwestern New Mexico began to add maize to their diet. Growing corn enabled them to have a more sedentary life style. Evidence of this life style change was the appearance of large villages. The houses were usually round, but some were quadrangular. The walls and roof were made of logs with mud daubed in the cracks. The pit-houses were often built on promontories or near mountain streams that provided some defense. The pit-house was well suited for the warm climate, as being under ground provided the necessary insulation. The largest pit houses or kivas served as religious and social structures. 

Another indication of the new non-migratory way of life was the appearance of pottery. The early pottery was earthware which was red or brown in color. Over the next hundred years, the brown bowls were decorated with intricate designs. For a century modifications were few, but a few artisans experimented with banding the necks of jars and polishing bowl interiors to create two-color pottery. The most amazing was the appearance of a stunning black-on-white ware with designs of animals on geometric lines. This pottery came from a subgroup of the Mogollon Culture called the Mimbres, who lived on the Mimbres River in southern New Mexico. The pottery exhibited skillful brush work creating precise geometric patterns. It was the natural depiction of animals and mythical composite figures that made this attractive pottery unmatched elsewhere in the Southwest. Details on the progressive changes in Mogollon pottery illustrate how archaeologists could use pottery and pottery shards to piece together ancient life styles in their research. By the late 1300’s, the people in the large towns of the central highlands began leaving. But total abandonment did not occur until A.D. 1450.

 

HOHOKAM

The next group of people known as the Hohokam Culture thrived from about 100 B.C. to A.D. 1500.  Hohokam in the Pima language means the “vanished ones”. These North American Indians occupied the land in what is now southern Arizona. While the origins of the culture are somewhat controversial, it is believed they migrated northward from the Mexican interior. Archaeologists estimate that the Hohokam population peaked in the 1200’s numbering over 20,000.

The Hohokam settled in the flat, broad lands suitable for farming. Over a period of time they created an efficient, lengthy network of canals and wells. The canals extended from the Salt and Gila Rivers to their farm land. The Hohokam Indians developed a remarkable irrigation system in a torrid homeland. With this agricultural engineering feat, their water systems enabled them to survive in a harsh, arid environment. Adjacent to the farmlands, these Indians built small pole, brush, and mud homes.  Their earliest homes were almost square and appeared to have been occupied by extended families. The roofs were flat with walls made of poles covered with brush or grass. Corn, squash, and beans were grown in their fields. In addition to farming, the Indians continued to gather wild cactus, fruit, and berries, and to hunt to supplement their diet.

Hohokam artistry was evident using two different materials; shells and clay. Using shells they fashioned a number of utilitarian and ornamental objects. Their creative talents were revealed in the varied uses of shells which were obtained from trade with the people from the Pacific Coast and the Gulf of California. The Hohokam Indians were resourceful and established a thriving trade with their neighbors, both the Mogollon and Anasazi.
The second material reflecting their artistry was clay. Bowls, coil pots, jars, and buff-colored utensils decorated with red designs were characteristic of their culture. Red-on-buff pottery continued for years, however, animal motifs and figurines were added for variety. The ceramic figures formed often depicted the human female. Human figurines were crafted along with polished bowls, often inset with shell ornaments. Many ceramics displayed geometric panels and interlocking designs. As well as figurines, mosaic plaques were found in buried caches. One type of mosaic plaque of interest was made of mirrors, using reflective iron pyrites. Such plaques give evidence of on-going trade with Mexico. Metate and manos for crushing corn and beans were basic equipment. Chipped arrowheads point to the use of the bow and arrow for hunting.

From about 500 to 1000 A.D. the Hohokam expanded their territory to the north and west. Many artifacts found suggest a continued contact with the
Mesoamerica Cultures. Two architectural examples are: sunken ball courts almost identical to the courts in Mexico, and a platform-mound with a flat-topped elevation, upon which ritualistic activities could be performed. The irrigation canals were extended and enlarged so more land could be cultivated. Improving these farming methods for more land cultivation allowed the population to increase. With a growing population, the contact with the peoples of the surrounding regions increased notably.

For the next two hundred years Hohokam territorial borders remained stable. It is believed community patterns changed very little other than the evidence of some houses being placed around a plaza. During these years the Hohokam did little to elaborate on the shapes and designs of their arts and crafts. They did make large storage jars. Trumpets were made by cutting off the spire of large conch shells. The shells give evidence of continued trade from the coast or gulf.

From 1100 A.D. and for the next three hundred years, the Hohokam Culture was thought to be at its peak by early archaeologists.  However, later archaeologist records prove otherwise. While the core area of the culture in the Gila-Salt valleys remained viable, out-lying villages were being abandoned for obscure reasons―most probably as circumstances arose.

New communities built during this period were larger in size but were fewer in number. With advanced farming techniques, Hohokam Indians grew enough food to support a sizable population. They also continued to gather corn and squash. Small desert animals were hunted to supplement their diet. The houses were still built of wood, brush, and mud, but with a new architectural form, clay-walled structures. The homes were often one-story buildings built atop mounds surrounded by stockade-like walls. Entry into the compounds was by ladders as there was no other entry. A new style with defense in mind?

Later in this period, multi-storied buildings resembling pueblos were built. Several scholars considered the style a result of the Anasazi influence. However, Hohokam architecture was not as impressive as that of the Anasazi― with the exception of Casa Grande. This edifice was a high-rise built on a platform constructed with three floors and an adobe tower four stories high.

In these latter years of the Hohokam culture, two distinct groups of people moved into Hohokam territory in approximately 1000 A.D.; the Salado, who were akin to the Anasazi, and the Sinagua. For years the Hohokam clung to their old ways. Eventually, however, the three distinctive life styles were blended together.

Other causes besides the integration of other life styles may have been responsible for the distinctive Hohokam culture to falter. Their system of irrigation was over a thousand years old and probably needed more maintenance than the farmers were willing to make. The farmlands could have become sterile due to the lack of fertilizer. Diseases, raids, and skirmishes with their neighboring tribes, and migration of the Salado from within might have decimated their ranks, or perhaps just natural disasters hastened their decline. Whatever the reasons, by the 1450’s their huge territory was abandoned and their culture ultimately became unrecognizable.

This departure was a sad ending for people who accomplished so much. Noted Hohokam archaeologists maintain that from their research the Pima and Papago people indeed were of the Hohokam ancestral period. Their life style was somewhat similar to the Hohokam, and later contacts indicated they were well adjusted to their desert habitat, a good indication of long residence.
By the time the Spanish arrived ninety years later, approximately 1540, they found a group of Pima-speaking, skilled, desert agriculturalists. Perhaps the survival of the language and subsistence living skills were all that was left of the Hohokam cultural existence of 1500 years.  

 

ANASAZI

The third group known as the Anasazi Culture were contemporaries of the Hohokam and developed around 100 B.C. They began to give up wandering and settled into hunting, gathering and some farming. Archaeologists refer to these people as Anasazi, because it is a Navajo word for “ancient ones”. They are also known as basket makers. Their long-lived cultural tradition began to fade in the mid 1300’s, prior to the Hohokam. Their civilization was customarily divided into five periods:

• Basket Maker I equivalent to Archaic Indian Period
• Basket Maker II (A.D. 1- 500),
• Basket Maker III (A.D. 500-750)
• Developmental Pueblo (A.D. 750-1050),
• Classic Pueblo (A.D. 1050-1300)
• Final Pueblo (A.D. 1300-1400).

These categories and titles are used by most scholars to date their research. With the research from the past century and a half, more is known about the Anasazi than any other early cultures of the Southwest.

The transition from hunting and gathering to a dependence on farming came slowly for the Anasazi. Apparently with the existence of a short growing season coupled with plentiful game, there was little need to settle down to an agricultural way of life. In approximately A.D. 500, corn and squash were introduced―probably by natives from Mesoamerica―and the culture developed quickly. Corn cultivation and agriculture have been traced to Mexico as early as 2000 B.C.

The “Basket Maker” wove seeds, grains, and yucca fibers into baskets, sandals, nets, and snares. Many of these artifacts were well-preserved in the dry climate. The idea that corn was a storable food is one of the most important events in Southwest history. As agriculture became more dominant, pottery began to flourish because it offered a means for cooking,
carrying water, and food storage. Clay pots for grain storage, unlike the fiber baskets, protected the crops from insects and rodents. In the beginning Anasazi pottery-making was just utilitarian, but over time it became an expressive, elaborate art form. As their expertise grew, the pottery was painted; an intricate, distinctive style of decoration was added. The bow and arrow became popular with the Anasazi sometime after A.D. 500. With the use of the bow and arrow their menu grew and a new weapon for defense was added to their arsenal.

Like the Mogollon, the Anasazi lived in pit-houses. As the Anasazi became more dependent on agriculture they made a gradual transition to pueblo architecture. After A.D. 750, the Anasazi developed a specialized form of architecture. Underground structures, kivas, and social rooms remained, but above-ground substantial structures called pueblos were added. At first the buildings were single-room dwellings, but across a brief period of time the rooms were constructed grouped together and assembled on top of one another. The edifices ranged in size from several small units to many-storied apartments and storage rooms. By our standards the rooms were small and dark. The Anasazi usually built their pueblos on cliff ledges, on top of a mesa, or in a canyon against a mesa. The purpose of the site locations was apparently to deter hostile attacks.

One of the largest pueblo communities flourished in Chaco Canyon in a barren valley of Northwestern New Mexico. Eight communities were built in the canyon, and others were constructed on the nearby mesas. The largest and most famous above-ground pueblo is called Pueblo Bonito―pretty dwelling. This pueblo covered approximately three acres and contained up to 800 rooms. Thousands of wooden beams were used for the roofing of the pueblo. Logs for the beams were carried from a highland area almost fifty miles away. The ring-dated beams indicate Pueblo Bonito was constructed and occupied about A.D. 900.

For the next two hundred years the Anasazi culturally advanced beyond their contemporaries. Each town had several hundred contiguous rooms arranged around a plaza, increasing in height as you moved to the rear of the structure. The plaza was dominated by a great kiva with smaller kivas situated along the edge of the plaza. It has been estimated that at its peak, the population in the Chaco Canyon could have been over 30,000.

In A.D. 1000 a flowering of the culture known as the Chaco Phenomenon occurred. During this time, the Anasazi reached their maximum geographic coverage and perhaps, also their greatest population. The people’s movement for communication and trade activities in the surrounding regions may have been assertive and sophisticated enough to preserve their cultural uniformity and identity.  

In Chaco Canyon the Anasazi established a network of medium-sized villages and large communities. They harnessed the water for irrigation to increase the crop yield. Roads and signal posts were built for more rapid communication. They produced elaborately designed pottery, exquisite jewelry, and brightly colored clothing. It is obvious that new ideas and materials came into Chaco life from Mexico.

For some reason, by A.D. 1300 the Indians of the entire region apparently abandoned their homes, moving to small settlements. These new homes were often built under cliff ledges, in recessed canyon walls, or in large caves of a deep canyon. Presumably their motive for selecting inaccessible sites was to provide a better defense. This idea is a controversial issue for some scholars and archaeologists. Some believe hostile people drove the cliff dwellers to their new homes. Others argue that the idea of building an impregnable fortress was a European idea never known to the Indians of the Southwest.

Within two hundred years, A.D. 1250 to 1450, the Mogallon, the Hohokam, and Anasazi cultures either moved, merged, fragmented or disappeared. Evidence reveals that they were not the only cultures that experienced this great change during this period. The end result of this was the phenomenon archaeologists call the “abandonment.”

What happened to all these ancient peoples? Where did they go? Apparently there were many causes. Archaeologists all support their own reasons for the disappearance of these great cultures. We know now that the cultures did not just vanish as once popularly believed. All faced a variety of problems or causes that would include the following:

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